RELIGIOSITY AMONG AUTISTIC CHILDREN: The Formation of Religious Practices and Islamic Spiritual Experiences

Ampun Bantali, Sjafri Sairin, Fuad Nashori, Azam Syukur Rahmatullah

Abstract


Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), despite their developmental limitations, remain spiritual subjects who can be introduced to religious life. This study investigates the nature of autistic children’s spiritual experiences, the significance of nurturing religiosity, and the strategies used to cultivate religious practices. Employing a phenomenological design, the research was conducted in North Sumatra with six informants: three autistic children and their parents. Data were collected through in-depth interviews. The findings reveal diverse patterns of religiosity: some children display difficulties grasping the abstract concept of God, while others develop heteronomous faith shaped largely by parental instruction and environmental exposure. Religious practices are typically performed through routine imitation rather than internalized theological comprehension. However, sustained parental guidance and supportive environments appear to foster more complex forms of religiosity. Importantly, religiosity functions not only as spiritual formation but also as a psychosocial resource that promotes self-regulation, emotional stability, and reduced anxiety. Effective strategies include habituation, modeling, repetition, and active engagement within supportive and inclusive communities.

Keywords


religiosity, autistic children, religious practice, Islamic Spirituality

Full Text:

PDF

References


Amani, Risca, Rahmahtrisilvia Rahmahtrisilvia, Arisul Mahdi, Afdal Luthfi, Fitri Maulidazani, Vikri Aflaha Qomari, and Azmil Umur. “The Effectiveness of Mauro Method Qur’an Memorization: A Study on Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders.” Ta’dib 27, no. 1 (2024): 93–100. https://doi.org/10.31958/jt.v27i1.10303

Arlinta, Deonisia. “Angka Autisme Meningkat, Kesadaran Kian Baik, Tetapi Layanan Masih Terbatas.” Kompas, 2025. https://www.kompas.id/artikel/angka-autisme-meningkat-kesadaran-kian-baik-tetapi-layanan-masih-terbatas.

Austin, Robert D., and Gary P. Pisano. “Neurodiversity as a Competitive Advantage.” Harvard Business Review, Massachusetts, 2017. https://hbr.org/2017/05/neurodiversity-as-a-competitive-advantage

Bal, Vanessa H, So-Hyun Kim, Megan Fok, and Catherine Lord. “Autism Spectrum Disorder Symptoms from Ages 2 to 19 Years: Implications for Diagnosing Adolescents and Young Adults.” Autism Research 12, no. 1 (January 1, 2019): 89–99. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2004

Bantali, Ampun, and Gadis Arniyati Athar. “Coping Strategies for Parents with Autistic Children: A Review from Islamic Psychology.” International Journal of Islamic Educational Psychology 6, no. 1 (2025): 76–103. https://doi.org/10.18196/ijiep.v6i1.26077

Baron-Cohen, Simon. Autism and ‘Theory of Mind.’ The Applied Psychologist. Philadelphi: Open University Press, 2000.

Bernier, Abdullah S, and Adam W McCrimmon. “Attitudes and Perceptions of Muslim Parents Toward Their Children with Autism: A Systematic Review.” Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 9, no. 3 (2022): 320–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-021-00256-9

Berriَs-Torres, Sandra I., Craig A. Umscheid, Dale W. Bratzler, Brian Leas, Erin C. Stone, Rachel R. Kelz, Caroline E. Reinke, et al. “Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Guideline for the Prevention of Surgical Site Infection 2017: Background, Methods and Evidence Summaries.” JAMA Surgery 152, no. 8 (2017): 784–91. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamasurg.2017.0904

Boyd, Jeffrey H. “Have We Found the Holy Grail? Theory of Mind as a Unifying Construct.” Journal of Religion and Health 47, no. 3 (2008): 366–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-008-9169-y

Carter, Erik W, and Thomas L Boehm. “Religious and Spiritual Expressions of Young People with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities.” Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities 44, no. 1 (February 19, 2019): 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/1540796919828082

Cook, Anna, and Jane Ogden. “Challenges, Strategies and Self-Efficacy of Teachers Supporting Autistic Pupils in Contrasting School Settings: A Qualitative Study.” European Journal of Special Needs Education 37, no. 3 (2022): 371–85.

https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2021.1878659

Crespi, Bernard, Natalie Dinsdale, Silven Read, and Peter Hurd. “Spirituality, Dimensional Autism, and Schizotypal Traits: The Search for Meaning.” PLoS ONE 14, no. 3 (2019): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0213456

Creswell, John W, and J David Creswell. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Sage publications, 2017.

Daly, Gina, Jeanne Jackson, and Helen Lynch. “Family Life and Autistic Children with Sensory Processing Differences: A Qualitative Evidence Synthesis of Occupational Participation.” Frontiers in Psychology 13 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.940478

Daniel-hughes, Brandon. “The Natural Pathways to Atheism: Cognitive Biases, Cultures, and Costs.” Religions 12, no. 867 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12100867

Datta, Saachi, and Andrew Newberg. “The Relationship between the Brain and Spirituality with Respect to Aging and Neurodegenerative Diseases: Clinical and Research Implications.” Journal of Religion, Spirituality & Aging 32, no. 4 (October 1, 2020): 357–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/15528030.2020.1773372

Daulay, N, H Daulay, and F Rohman. “Religious Coping of Muslim Mothers of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in Indonesia.” Journal of Disability &Religion, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1080/23312521.2024.2372021

Davis, Paige E., Jessica Slater, David Marshall, and Diana L. Robins. “Autistic Children Who Create Imaginary Companions: Evidence of Social Benefits.” Autism 27, no. 1 (2023): 244–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613221092195

Dunbar, RIM. “Religion, the Social Brain and the Mystical Stance.” Archive for the Psychology of Religion 42, no. 1 (January 29, 2020): 46–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0084672419900547

Enriquez, Juan, and Steve Gullans. Evolving Ourselves: How Unnatural Selection and Nonrandom Mutation Are Changing Life on Earth. New York: Penguin, 2015.

Enworo, Oko Chima. “Application of Guba and Lincoln’s Parallel Criteria to Assess Trustworthiness of Qualitative Research on Indigenous Social Protection Systems.” Qualitative Research Journal 23, no. 4 (2023): 372–84. https://doi.org/10.1108/QRJ-08-2022-0116

Gaag, Rutger-Jan van der. “Autism Spectrum Disorders: Developmental History of a Concept BT - Autism Spectrum Disorders in Adults.” edited by Bernardo Barahona Corrêa and Rutger-Jan van der Gaag, 1–27. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42713-3_1

Hayat, Aalia A, Areej H Meny, Ruth F Millman, Nabila Salahuddin, Ricky Ahuja, and Waqas Sami. “The Intersection of Faith and Neurodiversity: Unraveling Religiosity in Autistic Adolescents—A Critical Review Analysis.” Cureus 16, no. 5 (2024): 1–17. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.61271

Herzog, Patricia Snell. “Global Studies of Religiosity and Spirituality: A Systematic Review for Geographic and Topic Scopes.” Religions 11, no. 8 (2020): 1–32. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel11080399

Hills, K, J Clapton, P Dorsett, and K Andersen. “Spirituality in the Context of Nonverbal Autism: A Research Process–Analysis and Findings.” Journal of Disability and Religion 23, no. 4 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/23312521.2019.1682104

Hus, Yvette, and Osnat Segal. “Challenges Surrounding the Diagnosis of Autism in Children.” Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment 17 (2021): 3509–29. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S282569

Hussain, Shahrul. A Treasury of Sacred Maxims. England: Kube Publishing Limited, 2016.

Ilias, Kartini, Kim Cornish, Auretta S. Kummar, Miriam Sang Ah Park, and Karen J. Golden. “Parenting Stress and Resilience in Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in Southeast Asia: A Systematic Review.” Frontiers in Psychology 9, no. APR (2018). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00280

Jasim, Sara, and Adrienne Perry. “Repetitive and Restricted Behaviors and Interests in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Relation to Individual Characteristics and Mental Health Problems.” BMC Psychiatry 23, no. 1 (2023): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04766-0

Jeste, Shafali Spurling. “Neurodevelopmental Behavioral and Cognitive Disorders.” Continuum 21, no. 3 (June 1, 2015): 690–714. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.CON.0000466661.89908.3c

Kahija, Yf La. Penelitian Femonologis/ : Jalan Memahami Pengalaman Hidup. Edited by Ganjar Sudibyo. Kedua. Yogyakarta: Kanisius, 2018.

Kavaliotis, Paschalis. “Religion and Resilience of Parents with a Child with Autism Spectrum Disorders.” International Journal of sychological Studies 9, no. 2 (2017): 16. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijps.v9n2p16

———. “Resilience of Parents with a Child with Autism Spectrum Disorders and Factors for Its Potential Enhancement: Family Income and Educational Level.” Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology. pdfs.semanticscholar.org, 2017.

https://doi.org/10.5539/jedp.v7n1p188

Kéri, Szabolcs. “Autism and Religion.” Children (Basel, Switzerland) 10, no. 8 (August 2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/children10081417

Langdridge, D. Existential Counselling and Psychotherapy. Los Angeles: SAGE, 2013.

Lincoln, Yvonna S., and Egon G. Guba. Naturalistic Inquiry. Beverly Hills, California: SAGE Publications Sage, 1985.

Livingston, Lucy Anne, Emma Colvert, Patrick Bolton, and Francesca Happé. “Good Social Skills despite Poor Theory of Mind: Exploring Compensation in Autism Spectrum Disorder.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 60, no. 1 (2019): 102–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12886

Lord, Catherine, Traolach S Brugha, Tony Charman, James Cusack, Guillaume Dumas, Thomas Frazier, Emily J H Jones, et al. “Autism Spectrum Disorder.” Nature Reviews Disease Primers 6, no. 1 (2020): 5. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41572-019-0138-4

Emotional Intelligence and Religious Belief.” Journal of Religion and Health 56, no. 6 (2017): 1998–2009. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-016-0335-3

———. “No Empathy for People nor for God: The Relationship between the Dark Triad, Religiosity and Empathy.” Personality and Individual Differences 115 (2017): 169–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.012

Maenner, Matthew J., Rochelle P Walensky, Rebecca Bunnell, Charlotte K Kent, Alexander J Gottardy, Maureen A Leahy, Julia C Martinroe, et al. “Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Prevalence and Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder among Children Aged 8 Years-Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2020.” MMWR Surveill Summ. Vol. 72. Atlanta, 2023.

McCauley, Robert N, George Graham, and A C Reid. “Theory of Mind, Religiosity, and Autistic Spectrum Disorder: A Review of Empirical Evidence Bearing on Three Hypotheses.” Journal of Cognition and Culture 19, no. 5 (2019): 411–31. https://doi.org/10.1163/15685373-12340067

Moustakas, C. Phenomenological Research Methods. London: SAGE, 1994.

Norenzayan, Ara, Will M. Gervais, and Kali H. Trzesniewski. “Mentalizing Deficits Constrain Belief in a Personal God.” PLoS ONE 7, no. 5 (2017): 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0036880

Ommen, Armand L. van, and Topher Endress. “Reframing Liturgical Theology Through the Lens of Autism: A Qualitative Study of Autistic Experiences of Worship.” Studia Liturgica 52, no. 2 (2022): 219–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/00393207221111573

Pandya, Samta P. “Spirituality to Build Resilience in Primary Caregiver Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Cross-Country Experiment.” International Journal of Developmental Disabilities 64, no. 1 (2018): 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/20473869.2016.1222722

Panicker, Anuja S, and Sonali Ramesh. “Psychological Status and Coping Styles of Caregivers of Individuals with Intellectual Disability and Psychiatric Illness.” Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 32, no. 1 (January 1, 2019): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.12496

Ramon Harvey. Transcendent God, Rational World: A Maturidi Theology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2021.

Reddish, Paul, Tok Penny, and Radek Kundt. “Religious Cognition and Behaviour in Autism: The Role of Mentalizing.” The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 26, no. 2 (2016): 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2014.1003518

Riany, Yulina Eva, Monica Cuskelly, and Pamela Meredith. “Cultural Beliefs about Autism in Indonesia.” International Journal of Disability, Development and Education 63, no. 6 (2016): 623–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2016.1142069

Russell, Bertrand, and Thomas Baldwin. The Analysis of Mind. The Analysis of Mind. Routledge, 2022. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003308935

Saide, Anondah, and Rebekah Richert. “Correspondence in Parents’ and Children’s Concepts of God: Investigating the Role of Parental Values, Religious Practices and Executive Functioning.” British Journal of Developmental Psychology 40, no. 3 (2022): 422–37. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12415

Smith, J. A., P Flowers, and M Larkin. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis: Theory, Method and Research. London: SAGE, 2021.

Sofie Boldsen. “On the Actuality and Virtuality of Autistic Encounters: Respecting the Autistic Voice and Reimagining the Social.” Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology 29, no. 3 (2022): 217–20. https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/ppp.2022.0028

Sullivan, Susan Crawford, and Victoria Aramini. “Religion and Positive Youth Development: Challenges for Children and Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder.” Religions 10, no. 10 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10100540

Taves, Ann, and Egil Asprem. “Experience as Event: Event Cognition and the Study of (Religious) Experiences.” Religion, Brain & Behavior 7, no. 1 (January 2, 2017): 43–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/2153599X.2016.1150327

Testoni, Ines, Sofia Pesci, Ciro De Vincenzo, Laura Dal Corso, and Adriano Zamperini. “Work And Spirituality Among People With Asperger Syndrome: An Exploratory Study.” Journal of Disability & Religion 23, no. 2 (April 3, 2019): 178–96.

https://doi.org/10.1080/23312521.2019.1580174

Tian, Junbin, Xuping Gao, and Li Yang. “Repetitive Restricted Behaviors in Autism Spectrum Disorder: From Mechanism to Development of Therapeutics.” Frontiers in Neuroscience 16, no. March (2022): 1–22. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2022.780407

Visuri, Ingela. “Rethinking Autism, Theism, and Atheism: Bodiless Agents and Imaginary Realities.” Archive for the Psychology of Religion 40, no. 1 (2018): 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1163/15736121-12341348

World Health Organization. “Global Report on Health Equity for Persons with Disabilities,” 2022. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240063600

Yakub, Nur Asyikin, N. B. Abdul Kadir, and S. Mohd Hoesni. “Prevalence and Associated Factors of Depression among Parents with Low Socio-Economic Status in the Community in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.” Journal of Health and Translational Medicine 23 (2020): 238–44. https://jummec.um.edu.my/article/view/25861

Zahavi, D. “Applied Phenomenology: Why It Is Safe to Ignore the Epoché.” Continental Philosophy Review 54, no. 2 (2021): 259–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11007-019-09463-y

Zahavi, D, and K. M. M. Martiny. “Phenomenology in Nursing Studies: New Perspectives.” International Journal of Nursing Studies 93 (2019): 155–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2019.01.014

Zeidan, Jinan, Eric Fombonne, Julie Scorah, Alaa Ibrahim, Maureen S. Durkin, Shekhar Saxena, Afiqah Yusuf, Andy Shih, and Mayada Elsabbagh. “Global Prevalence of Autism: A Systematic Review Update.” Autism Research 15, no. 5 (2022): 778–90. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2696




DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.30821/miqot.v50i1.1378

Refbacks

  • There are currently no refbacks.


I n d e x i n g :

           

 

 

MIQOT: Jurnal Ilmu-ilmu Keislaman (P-ISSN: 0852-0720; E-ISSN: 2502-3616) by http://jurnalmiqotojs.uinsu.ac.id/index.php/jurnalmiqot/index is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

Copyright ©2023 Universitas Islam Negeri Sumatera Utara Medan. Powered by Public Knowledge Project OJS.

 View My Stats